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Ecology is a term on everyone’s lips. Hardly a week passes without a newspaper or television report on an event or development as having a good—or more often a bad—“ecological” implication. Commercial products that their makers claim cause no pollution are marketed as being “eco-friendly.” Governments enact “eco-friendly” or “eco-unfriendly” laws. What does all this mean?

Ecology: Plants, Animals, and the Environment aims to trace the origin of ecology and to explain what it is and how it has developed. In doing so, it becomes clear that ecology has two quite distinct meanings. On the one hand, it is the name of a scientifi c discipline, pursued by patient observation, experiment, and the application of statistical tests to interpret results. On the other hand, it is a shared belief system that inspires a popular environmentalist movement. To an environmentalist, ecology refers to the way the natural world once was and how it should be now. It is an ideal for which they believe we all should strive.  The two meanings are quite separate, but that does not preclude ecologists from being environmentalists. Many are. Although the science of ecology emerged recently, it has a long ancestry.

Preface ix

Acknowledgments xi

Introduction xii

CHAPTER 1

GILBERT WHITE AND HIS LETTERSTO NATURALISTS 1

The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne 2

Gilbert White, Naturalist of Selborne 3

Controlling Pests to Improve Crop Yields 7

CHAPTER 2

THE BEGINNING OF CONSERVATION 12

Renewable Resources in Medieval Forests 15

John Evelyn and Forestry 19

George Perkins Marsh and the Consequences of Deforestation 23

National Parks and Wildlife Reserves 27

Henry David Thoreau and Walden 31

Aldo Leopold and Preserving Wilderness 34

The Meaning of the Dust Bowl 36

Public or Private? “The Tragedy of the Commons” 40

CHAPTER 3

THE CHAIN OF BEING 44

John Ray and the Classifi cation of Plants 45

Adaptation and the Great Chain of Being 48

Charles Bonnet (1720–1793), and the Discovery of Parthenogenesis 50

William Derham and the Interdependence of Organisms 52

Linnaeus and Binomial Nomenclature 54

René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur (1683–1757), and Experiments with Nature 55

What Is a Species? 61

CHAPTER 4

GEOGRAPHY OF LIVING THINGS 65

Eden, Noah, and Migration 66

Johann Forster, Georg Forster, James Cook, and Voyages of Biological Exploration 69

The Comte de Buff on and Geographic Isolation 74

Karl Willdenow and Plant Distribution 78

Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland, Exploring South America 79

CHAPTER 5

CHARLES DARWIN AND HIS “ENTANGLED BANK” 85

Darwin and the Beagle 86

Evolution by Means of Natural Selection 90

Population and Resources 96

Thomas Malthus and An Essay on the Principle of Population 98

Ernst Haeckel and “Oecology,” the Study of the Household 101

How “Oecology” Became “Ecology” 104

Vladimir Vernadsky and the Discovery of the Biosphere 106

James Lovelock and the Physiology of the Earth 108

Gaia Hypothesis 110

G. F. Gause and the Struggle for Existence 112

CHAPTER 6

THE GROWTH OF ECOLOGY 115

Abandoning the “Balance of Nature” 116

Karl Möbius, His Oysters, and the Biocoenosis 118

Stephen Forbes and “The Lake as a Microcosm” 120

François-Alphonse Forel and the Inhabitants of Lac Léman 123

Victor Hensen, Karl Brandt, and Studies of Sea Life 126

CHAPTER 7

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF PLANTS 131

Oscar Drude and Plant Communities 132

Josias Braun-Blanquet and Phytosociology 133

The Zurich-Montpellier School 135

Eugenius Warming and the Ecology of Plants 136

CHAPTER 8

AMERICAN ECOLOGY 139

Charles C. Adams and the Survey of Isle Royale 140

Henry Chandler Cowles and the Sand Dunes of Lake Michigan 142

Frederic E. Clements, Plant Succession, and the Superorganism 146

The Climax Concept 149

Henry Allan Gleason and the Individualistic Concept 150

Victor E. Shelford and Animal Communities 152

Robert H. MacArthur and the Testing of Hypotheses 153

Alfred J. Lotka, Vito Volterra, and the Mathematics of Relationships 155

Raymond Lindeman, Energy and Effi ciency 158

The Odum Brothers and Systems Ecology 160

CHAPTER 9

BRITISH ECOLOGY 165

Arthur G. Tansley, Exploring British Plants 166

Charles Elton, Regulating Populations 170

Ecological Pyramids 173

Ronald Aylmer Fisher and the Union of Evolution and Ecology 174

Mendel’s Laws 175

CHAPTER 10

THE RISE OF SOCIOBIOLOGY 178

William D. Hamilton and the Evolution of Behavior 179

Edward O. Wilson and Sociobiology 183

CHAPTER 11

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTALISM 186

Rachel Carson and Silent Spring 187

The Rise of the Environmentalist Movement 190

The Stockholm Conference and the United Nations Environment Programme 192

Environmental Protection and Reducing Pollution 196

Conclusion 199

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书籍介绍

Ecology is a term on everyone’s lips. Hardly a week passes without a newspaper or television report on an event or development as having a good—or more often a bad—“ecological” implication. Commercial products that their makers claim cause no pollution are marketed as being “eco-friendly.” Governments enact “eco-friendly” or “eco-unfriendly” laws. What does all this mean?

Ecology: Plants, Animals, and the Environment aims to trace the origin of ecology and to explain what it is and how it has developed. In doing so, it becomes clear that ecology has two quite distinct meanings. On the one hand, it is the name of a scientifi c discipline, pursued by patient observation, experiment, and the application of statistical tests to interpret results. On the other hand, it is a shared belief system that inspires a popular environmentalist movement. To an environmentalist, ecology refers to the way the natural world once was and how it should be now. It is an ideal for which they believe we all should strive.  The two meanings are quite separate, but that does not preclude ecologists from being environmentalists. Many are. Although the science of ecology emerged recently, it has a long ancestry.